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RSC Advances Review 32930 | RSC Adv., 2021, 11, 32917–32941 © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry Table 3 Summary of ecotoxicological assessments and reported effects of microplastics and leachates originated from biobased polymers Ecotoxicological assessment Microplastics Biobased polymer Polylactic acid (PLA) Organisms Lugworms (Arenicola Exposure medium Seawater Exposure Mesocosm: mean 235.7 (14.8 SE) Effects No mortality registered Reference Green et al.144 Leachates PLA Copepod (Nitokra spinipes) Seawater Leachates obtained from materials pre- and post-treated with irradiance at 765 W m2 for 96 h at 40 C (weathering). Exposure for 96 h to a dilution series No induced toxicity Bejgarn et al.119 Polyhydroxy-butyrate (PHB) (Nutrient uxes) Amphipod (Gammarus fossarum) Freshwater 32–64 mm; 1 mg L1 (100 000 MPP per individual); 28 d Straub et al.145 PLA Water eas (Daphnia magna) Freshwater 10, 50, 100, 500 mg L1, <59 mm; 21 d Zimmermann et al.147 50% corn starch and 50% aliphatic polyester Signicantly more toxic aer irradiation, i.e., lower LC50 (median lethal concentration) for treatments when compared with control exposure Leachates from PLA signicantly induced baseline toxicity PLA Bacterium (Aliivibrio scheri) In vitro exposure Leachates obtained from the extraction of 3 g of material in methanol, aer evaporation and solved in medium using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Exposure for 30 min (baseline toxicity) to Zimmermann et al.148 marina) mm; 0, 0.02, 0.2 and 2% PLA MPs of wet sediment weight; 31 d Biomass was not signicantly different between any treatments Metabolic rate (O2 uptake): no difference from control treatments Microphytobenthos Bioturbation (production of surface casts): no difference from control treatments The biomass (concentration of microalgae at the surface of the sediment) was 1.6 lower than control treatments in exposures of 2% PLA (w/w) Nutrient uxes were not affected Feeding rate and assimilation efficiency did not differ between treatments Weight (body mass) loss aer 3 and 4 weeks of exposure to PHB: 0.36 mg (0.52 95% CI, condence interval) Decrease in reproduction rate (EC50 1⁄4 122 mg L1, median effective concentration). Signicantly higher mortality than controls at 122 mg L1 Increase in mortality (60%) and decrease in adult body length at 500 mg L1 Cell lines (AREc32) a dilution series 1 : 2 (corresponding to 0.0027–7.5 mg PLA) Exposure to leachates obtained as above, for 24 h (oxidative stress) to Leachates from PLA signicantly induced oxidative stressPDF Image | Long-term durability and ecotoxicity of biocomposites in marine environments
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