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Review RSC Advances Table 2 A summary of methods of leachate preparation in (natural & artificial) seawater from biocomposites and fossil fuel-based polymersa Polymer category Biopolymers Fossil fuel-based polymers Polymer type PLA, BioPET, corn starch/ aliphatic esters HDPE, PVC PET, PS, PP, PVC, CTR PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, PS, PC PVC PE PET, PE, PP, PS PP, PS, LDPE, HDPE, PVC, PET, PLA, Nylon Solid/liquid ratio (L kg1) 10 Illumination — Temperature Duration ( C) 96h Room temperature 5 days 22 14 days 25 24 h 28 24 h 20 48 25 96 h 20–30 96 h Room temperature References Bejgarn et al. (2015)119 Tetu et al. (2019)125 Capolupo et al. (2020)120 Li et al. (2016)128 Oliviero et al. (2019)129 Ke et al. (2019)130 Rummel et al. (2019)131 Bejgarn et al. (2015)119 polyethylene; PVC: 40–125 (HDPE); 200– 8000 (PVC) illumination 12.5 0.5 m2 L1 10 100 4 10 Continuous No — No Dark UV A + B light irradiation — a BioPET: biobased polyethylene terephthalate; PLA: polylactic acid; HDPE: high density polyethylene; LDPE: low density polyvinyl chloride; PS: polystyrene; PP: polypropylene; CTR: car tire rubber; PC: polycarbonate. chemical-proling of leachates to the marine environment from fossil fuel-based polymers and especially from bio- composites.119,120,125 Capolupo et al.120 successfully characterised a list of organic additives in the leachate solutions (in ltered natural seawater) of ve fossil fuel-based polymers by a combi- nation of non-target and target chemical analyses in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Additionally, these authors identied and quantied several metal elements (e.g., Pb, Zn, and Mn) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The use of the ICP-MS technique has also been applied and validated by other studies such as the work of Lithner et al.126 and Tetu et al.125 The work of Bejgarn et al.119 was the only one found to date to have performed a chemical screening of leachates from biopolymers, but no individual substances were identied. As such, there is a need to standardise procedures to systematically extract and characterise the chemical compositions of leachates from plastics to the marine environment, especially from bio- composites. The information on the dissolved leachate composition under realistic scenarios will contribute to an improved environmental risk assessment of biocomposite materials based on high quality data. 4. Ecotoxicology of microplastics and leachates from biobased materials 4.1 Ecotoxicological effects of microplastics in aquatic environments Microplastics (MPs, <5 mm) result mainly from the degradation and fragmentation of larger units of oil- and biobased plastics, and have the potential to induce toxic effects in marine and other aquatic organisms.132 The high variability and complexity of polymers, shapes, and sizes of particles released in the environment, together with the use of exposure concentrations orders of magnitude higher than environmentally relevant ones, has limited the quality of the data to assess the risk MPs to biota.133 The ingestion of fossil fuel-based MPs can induce inhibition of digestive processes (e.g., amphipods134), cause gut abrasion and lesions (e.g., in sh135), and be retained and give a false sensation of satiation, leading to malnutrition and hunger (e.g., in mussels136). However, an increasing number of studies are reporting no effects of MPs exposure in aquatic organisms, especially at environmentally relevant concentra- tions. For instance, there have been reports of no impacts of MPs exposure on food consumption or growth of sh larvae,137 nor on the survival of sea urchins larvae.138 In marine amphi- pods, exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of polystyrene (PS) microparticles had no effect on food consumption and growth of adult organisms.139 The variety of the reported magnitudes of the ecotoxico- logical effects of MPs in organisms can be due to the diversity of particle shapes and sizes, which induces differing ingestion and encounter rates by organisms, or gut retention times.140 However it can also be due to unreported experimental arte- facts,141 to the lack of use of standardised ecotoxicological assessments (such as the recommended standard operational procedures from the International Organization for Standardi- zation, ISO; The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD; etc.) or to exposures that exceed environ- mentally relevant concentrations.142 To assess the risk of MPs in the environment, there is a need to both improve the quality of ecotoxicological assessments, as well as to report the effect thresholds to identify the impact of MPs in the biota.133 Only by building up on the current knowledge will it be possible to conduct improved environmental risk assessments, especially in marine areas where MPs accumulate.132,143 The knowledge on the effects of MPs from biobased poly- mers is more restricted when compared to particles from fossil fuel-based polymers, and mostly limited to the ecotoxicological effects of PHB and PLA (Table 3). Up to now, there is little evidence that biobased MPs will induce signicant effects in © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2021, 11, 32917–32941 | 32929PDF Image | Long-term durability and ecotoxicity of biocomposites in marine environments
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