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Hull Scrapings and Marine Coatings as a Source of Microplastics also known that plastic species have the ability to sorb organic pollutants (e.g. PAHs1, PCBs2 and DDT3) and heavy metals (Rochman, 2015). Through this, bioaccumulation and biomagnification of contaminants can lead to them reaching levels reported as up to ten times higher in organism guts than those in surrounding sediments (Van Cauwenberghe et al., (2015), from IMO, (2018c)). Brennecke et al. (2016) showed that organic polymer microplastics have strong attraction to heavy metals and that this was likely related to “cations or complexes onto charged sites or neutral regions of the plastic surface”. Brennecke et al. (2016) went on to show that differing plastics sorption rates would respond differently to contaminants (via hydrophobicity, diffusivity, etc.) and importantly the work quoted a paper by Holmes (2013) which identified that pollutants bound to plastics are highly bioavailable. The interest in the fate of plastics within the marine environment is highlighted by the development of organisations such as International Pellet Watch who are involved in ongoing global studies of plastics sorption of contaminants in marine environments; their data clearly shows concentration patterns for marine plastics near heavily industrialised areas. Brennecke et al. (2016) commented that microplastics can play an important vector role in heavy metal transport and considered copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) transport from AFS. Interestingly, Auta, Emenike and Fauziah (2017) also reviewed microplastics as a pollution pathway and commented that metals from anti-fouling compounds bonded to plastics, though neither study considered plastics from anti-fouling systems or other marine coatings themselves. Work has shown that plastics can be taken up by filter feeding species potentially creating a direct pathway to humans (e.g. Phuong et al., 2017). Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen (2014) showed that mussels and oysters in Europe contained microplastic particles and estimated that Europeans with a diet high in shellfish may have annual exposure to 11,000 microplastic particles, though the toxicity of this to human health cannot yet be reliably assessed (though see Rist et al., 2018). Accordingly, it may prove valuable to consider microplastics from AFS and their ability to bond to heavy metals or biocides associated with anti-fouling systems and marine coatings, and thus their potential intrusion into ecological and human food pathways. Though new un-degraded plastics may be considered relatively inert, work suggests that more than 50% of plastics produced are hazardous “based upon their constituent monomers, additives and by-products” (Rochman, 2015). Further, whilst these may be relatively chemically inert, breakdown can lead to monomer releases which are known to be toxic (Rochman, 2015; from IMO, 2018). For example, bisphenol may be a disruptor of endocrine function and styrene has also been implicated in this area, although a direct endocrine effect for styrene in marine and aquatic systems needs to be clarified (e.g. Gelbke et al., 2015). Styrene is also associated with carcinogenic and / or mutagenic responses and is listed as a toxic substance by the US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) and the OSPAR Commission (Rochman, 2015). Of secondary interest, GESAMP (2015) shows calculations for the specific gravity of some plastic species. Whilst many plastics sink to the benthic habitat, accumulation of a biofilm or hydrophobic organic molecules (Kedzierski et al., 2018) on these fragments will mean they may be re-suspended, potentially being taken up by filter feeding and opportunist pelagic or scavenging intertidal species such as ghost crabs (Ocypode and Hoplocypode) (Schlacher et al., 2016) (Figure 2.1). 1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 2 Polychlorinated biphenyls 3 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 4PDF Image | HULL SCRAPINGS AND MARINE COATINGS AS A SOURCE OF MICROPLASTICS
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