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J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 26 16 of 28 the break-even point in about 6.6 months for ground installation or 6.8 months for an offshore plant. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28 Assuming a useful life of 20 years, energy efficiency is about 35 for both cases [37,46]. BlaBdleasdeasraereuussuuaalllyymanufactturreedasamsumltui-lmti-amteartiearlisatlruscttrurcetsu,rceosm,bcionminbginreiningforeceindfofirbcerdpofliybmerers polaynmdewrsooadndin owrodoedr toinmeoertdsetrentogthm, seteitffnsetsrsenagntdh,ligshtitfwfneeisgshtarnedquilriegmhtewnetsig. hRteirnefqourcireemeenttss.are Reitnyfpoirccaellmy egnlatssa,rceartybopnic,aolrlyhgylbarsisd, fcabrrbiocsn., Poorlhyyebstreird, vfainbyrilcess.tPeroloyreespteorx,yvirneysilneastreruosredepaosxmyartersixin. Aarsefor usetdidasl tmuarbtriinxe. Ablsadfoerst,iudpalpteurrabnindelbolwaderesp,aurptspaereanpdroldouwcerdpsaerptsaraarteelpyroadnudctehdensejpoainraetdeleyaacnhdothenr by joinmeedaenaochf tohtehaerdhbeysmivealnayoefr,thresaudlthinegsivine alasyaenr,drwesicuhltisntrguicntuaresa(nsedewtihcehsscthruemctuerdee(pseicetethdeinscFhiegmuree 4. depAidctheedsivneFsitgruenregt4h.Aanddhedsuivraebsitlirteynagrtehcarnudciadluprarbailmiteytearsescirnucceiathlepyarsaigmneifitecrasnstilnycaefftehcetythsiegpneifrifcoarnmtlaynce affeocftththeebplaedrfeo.rmance of the blade. 4.2. Materials Figure 4. Cross-section of a wind turbine blade [42]. Figure 4. Cross-section of a wind turbine blade [42]. 4.2. Materials Carbon and glass-reinforced composites represent a suitable replacement for metals in the manufacturing of blades for offshore wind and tidal energy devices. As a matter of fact, FRP provides Carbon and glass-reinforced composites represent a suitable replacement for metals in the high specific strength and stiffness coupled with outstanding resistance to corrosion, moisture, and manufacturing of blades for offshore wind and tidal energy devices. As a matter of fact, FRP provides fatigue. Furthermore, they can be molded into complex shapes with reduced overall mass. Design and high specific strength and stiffness coupled with outstanding resistance to corrosion, moisture, and manufacturing of composite blades for wind turbines and for on-shore and offshore devices have the fatigue. Furthermore, they can be molded into complex shapes with reduced overall mass. Design same requirements. Nevertheless, tidal turbine blades, being immersed in the seawater environment, and manufacturing of composite blades for wind turbines and for on-shore and offshore devices have require more attention at the design stage, for the definition of the shapes and the selection of materials. the same requirements. Nevertheless, tidal turbine blades, being immersed in the seawater Indeed, tidal turbines have to withstand both extreme static and fatigue loads during their lifetime environment, require more attention at the design stage, for the definition of the shapes and the (approximately 20–25 years, like the wind turbines). The fatigue loads depend on the depth of the selection of materials. Indeed, tidal turbines have to withstand both extreme static and fatigue loads installation, the proximity of the seabed and the wave motion. Consequently, they are extremely during their lifetime (approximately 20–25 years, like the wind turbines). The fatigue loads depend variable and hardly predictable. Intensive experimental and numerical studies have been carried on the depth of the installation, the proximity of the seabed and the wave motion. Consequently, they out to investigate the effects of cyclic loading (in particular mean stress and variable amplitude of are extremely variable and hardly predictable. Intensive experimental and numerical studies have applied loads) on the degradation of composites in the seawater environment [44,45]. Furthermore, been carried out to investigate the effects of cyclic loading (in particular mean stress and variable tidal turbines must be designed in order to not avoid maintenance during their lifetime, because of the amplitude of applied loads) on the degradation of composites in the seawater environment [44,45]. inaccessibility of the operating environments (usual turbines are placed at a depth of about 50 m where Furthermore, tidal turbines must be designed in order to not avoid maintenance during their lifetime, sea currents may reach extreme speeds of about 4 m/s). Finally, high resistance to biodegradation is because of the inaccessibility of the operating environments (usual turbines are placed at a depth of required to withstand the hostile seawater environment [39,42,47]. about 50 m where sea currents may reach extreme speeds of about 4 m/s). Finally, high resistance to The adoption of carbon and glass as reinforcement in composites is driven by a trade-off between biodegradation is required to withstand the hostile seawater environment [39,42,47]. material and manufacturing costs, in order to make the produced energy competitive and meet The adoption of carbon and glass as reinforcement in composites is driven by a trade-off between design requirements (e.g., blade hydrodynamic profiles). The need for cost-minimizing pushed the material and manufacturing costs, in order to make the produced energy competitive and meet designers towards the use of carbon fibers only for the realization of the primary load-bearing parts design requirements (e.g., blade hydrodynamic profiles). The need for cost-minimizing pushed the of the structure. Epoxy and vinyl ester resins are commonly used as matrices. The former exhibits designers towards the use of carbon fibers only for the realization of the primary load-bearing parts superior performance compared to other resins, especially in cyclic loading conditions. The latter is less of the structure. Epoxy and vinyl ester resins are commonly used as matrices. The former exhibits expensive and is characterized by higher resistance to water penetration. Carbon fiber reinforcements superior performance compared to other resins, especially in cyclic loading conditions. The latter is are being introduced into the blades to improve stiffness and tensile strength, compared to glass-fiber less expensive and is characterized by higher resistance to water penetration. Carbon fiber composites. However, the improvement in compression strength is considerably lower compared reinforcements are being introduced into the blades to improve stiffness and tensile strength, to the rise in overall costs. Therefore, using a mixture of glass and carbon fibers, with carbon used compared to glass-fiber composites. However, the improvement in compression strength is considerably lower compared to the rise in overall costs. Therefore, using a mixture of glass and carbon fibers, with carbon used primarily to increase stiffness, represents a compromise between these competitive goals. Tests carried out on epoxy and vinyl-ester resin laminates with E-glass reinforcements showed that epoxy/E-Glass panels have 25% higher fatigue resistance than vinylPDF Image | Marine Application of Fiber Reinforced Composites
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