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RSC Advances Review environmental ageing behaviour relating to long term weathering performance and their ecotoxicology aspects. The real risk of biobased polymers to biota is largely unknown and there is a need to test effects of both leachates and derived MPs according to internationally standardised ecotoxicity protocols. The properties of biobased sustainable composites can be enhanced to meet the functional requirements by using various techniques and by optimising numerous process parameters. It is expected that using biobased polymers and composite materials in marine applications will reduce environmental impact, including fewer leaching substances to the marine environment, limiting damage to marine life and to the even- tual reduction of our overall carbon footprint. 6.2 Perspectives on the ecotoxicology of microplastics and leachates from biobased materials Microplastics and leachates resulting from the degradation and fragmentation of biobased plastics have the potential to induce toxic effects in aquatic organisms, but currently there is little evidence to establish their toxicity in the environment. The number of ecotoxicological data points of biobased MPs is substantially lower than for fossil fuel-based polymer mate- rials, and limited to a restricted number of organisms (Table 3). In the case of leachate effects, the number of studies is even lower, and to date there are very few in vivo ecotoxicological assessments (Table 3). Furthermore, there is currently no infor- mation on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability to organisms of co-contaminants sorbed to biopolymer MPs. High quality eco- toxicological assessments are needed to evaluate whether bio- based materials can provide a sustainable alternative to fossil fuel-based applications. To enable a correct risk assessment of biobased materials in marine and other aquatic environments, there is a need to (1) increase the number of ecotoxicological assessments with a variety of organisms and life stages, for representativity; (2) guarantee that exposures be performed using robust concentration-relationships, to include environmentally relevant scenarios and generate data suitable to calculate effect thresholds, and (3) run exposures using high quality methodol- ogies based on internationally validated standard operating procedures, for comparability and reliability. Only high-quality studies will provide reliable data to inform the public, industry and policymakers on the development and implementation of more sustainable and safe solutions using biobased composites. Over the past decade, the use of sustainable materials derived from sustainable resources in the marine sector has attracted signicant interest. However, despite the many attractive features that sustainable polymers and composites offer, resolving their shortcomings can be a test. For instance, these include low long- term durability subjected to harsh outdoor environments (temperature, seawater ageing, mechanical stresses, UV radia- tion) and inferior mechanical performance in comparison to established glass bre composites that are currently widely used in marine applications. Moreover, dealing with the end of their life cycle and establishing a reliable supply chain remain key challenges for these composites before they are more widely used in the marine sector. The marine sector has shown a growing interest in the use of sustainable biobased composites. The prospect of continued development and the use of biobased polymers and composites with environmental credentials presents a possible solution to replace materials with a high carbon footprint. To realise the full potential of this new class of sustainable materials for marine applications, an under- standing of their design, process parameters, material struc- tures and long term-durability relationships is crucial. More importantly, understanding the durability and degradation mechanisms involving moisture ingress and various chemical interactions of biobased polymers and composites exposed to marine environments is crucial. Abbreviations 32936 | RSC Adv., 2021, 11, 32917–32941 © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry UV PHBV SEM PLA PLLA PHBV RH UP FVE FBVEs FBVEu Flax/UD Flax/CP TGA DSC FTIR GPC REACH PHB BHA BHT Kow PU EU US EPA GC-MS ICP-MS BIOPP TPS BioPET PVA HDPE LDPE PVC PS PP CTR PC MPs ISO Ultraviolet Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Scanning electron microscopy Polylactide Poly-L-lactide Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Relative humidity Unsaturated polyester Flax/vinyl ester Flax/vinyl ester stitched Flax basalt vinyl ester unstitched Flax unidirectional Flax cross-ply Thermo-gravimetric analysis Differential scanning calorimetry Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy Gel permeation chromatography Registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Butylated hydroxyanisole Butylated hydroxytoluene Octanol–water partition coefficient Polyurethane European Union United States Environmental Protection Agency Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry Plasma mass spectrometry Biobased polypropylene Thermoplastic starch Biobased polyethylene terephthalate Poly vinyl alcohol High density polyethylene Low density polyethylene Polyvinyl chloride Polystyrene Polypropylene Car tire rubber Polycarbonate Microplastics International Organization for StandardizationPDF Image | Long-term durability and ecotoxicity of biocomposites in marine environments
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