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Review RSC Advances Fig. 12 Workflow approach to manufacturing bioinspired structures. and designed counterparts gives reliable feedback to be included in the iterative process of custom scaffold design. Despite different systematic theoretical and experimental attempts described in the literature, many procedural conicts remain. In general, geometrical key-features and parameters can be gauged from biology thanks to medical imaging or microscopy, then processed, oen modelled and replicated in a Computer Aided Design (CAD) environment (Fig. 12). Current manufacturing approaches are lacking in terms of both CAD design and manufacturing strategies needed for hybrid replication. Technology is consequently missing out on many advantages of bioinspiration because of both big data handling and the absence of material manufacturing control at the small scales. The CAD has evolved to generative design (GD),166–168 where specic elements and algorithms are provided to tune geometries that can be oriented to different purposes. The GD can be dened as a form-nding process, meant to produce a wide range of solutions, from a few to thousands, depending on the level of complexity of the object and the controlled parameters that dene the geometrical entity. Algo- rithms can be written starting from an ideal case and for- malised in codes. The computed process is able to follow the rules in input and shapes can be visualised by the user. If the output is in accordance with the ideal case, the next step is to choose an appropriate manufacturing process to make the parts. For example, one tool for computer aided industrial design (CAID) called RhinocerosTM (McNeal, Seattle, WA, USA) is providing means and plugins to widen free form modelling, regardless of any level of shape size and complexity. The GD is a conceptual, dynamic, iterative and uent way of shaping objects. Object dimensions can be set within the 3D environ- ment in order to design at sub-micron length scales as well as above the meter scale. In this sense, limits related to the adopted manufacturing technology are boundary conditions necessary for the production of a bioinspired functional mate- rial. Structure provides the framework for the distribution of materials and is demonstrated here across a range of length scales (Fig. 13). 5.3 Manufacturing processes and important parameters Challenges that need to be addressed in the coming years include making technologies economically viable for produc- tion of biobased monomers and biobased polymers from renewable sources. It is very important to develop new manufacturing routes by replacing existing methods to reach high performing composites as well as approaching length scales not accessible to conventional manufacturing tech- niques. Biocomposite material selection implies a prior study of the mechanical properties of the composite constituents, chemical resistance, dimensional stability and suitable manufacturing process. Moreover, the different nature of constituents decides the end-of-life recycling of the nal composites and the ability to be recyclable or biodegradable. Benets over synthetic bres such as low manufacturing energy consumption, low carbon footprint and biodegradability are an evidence of natural bres being much less cost effective due to low energy to production costs when compared to traditional reinforcing bres such as glass and carbon.170 Technological developments and manufacturing strategies are very case- specic, strictly related to mechanical needs and economic convenience. Among the disadvantages associated with the use of natural bres within biocomposites, poor moisture resis- tance, limited processing temperatures, lower durability, vari- ation in quality and price, reduce the chance to use established manufacturing processes.78,171 Moisture is crucial when fabri- cating biocomposites; the low processability of biocomposites Fig. 13 Schematic showing the relationship between multiple length scales, the potential for functional grading and the use of multiple materials to produce hybrid materials (adapted from Wainwright et al.169). © 2021 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2021, 11, 32917–32941 | 32933PDF Image | Long-term durability and ecotoxicity of biocomposites in marine environments
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