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supplementary source of energy. Extensive amount of energy is required to manufacture cement. According to Kraus et al. (2010), approximately 1.5 - 5 million btu of electricity is consumed for every ton of cement produced. As previously stated, large amounts of coal burning are required in order to satisfy the high energy demand. Approximately 60% of the total energy generated is due to coal burning or 3.2 million btu per ton cement produced. Finally, the production of cement also entails the use of heavy volume of oil to generate supplementary energy to meet towering demands. On average, for every ton of cement manufactured, 63 thousand btu oil is consumed (EPA, 2010). The generation of dust amongst other air pollutants is also a downside to cement production. US EPA estimates that approximately 360 pounds of dust is engendered per ton of cement produced. For all the reasons previously stated and many more, the application of cement in concrete is slowly decreasing and the use of more environmentally sustainable alternatives with similar cementitous properties and strength capabilities, such as fly ash are on the rise. 3.3 Fly ash & fly ash concrete Fly ash particles are generated as a result of the burning of coal in power plants. A rough sketch explaining the process of fly ash manufacturing is displayed in figure 1. Fly ashes can have very different chemical and phase composition because in general, their composition is exclusively related to the type and the amount of impurities present in the coal burnt in the power plant (Aitcin, 1998). For instance, coal obtained from the same source will produce fly ashes of similar characteristics. On the other hand, fly ashes 12PDF Image | HDPE FIBER REINFORCED RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
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